Bocavirus
No Results
No Results
processing….
Human bocavirus (HBoV) was first described in 2005 by a group of Swedish scientists who identified a previously uncharacterized virus in the respiratory secretions of acutely ill children. [1]
Human bocavirus is a small, single-molecule, linear DNA, nonenveloped virus with a nucleocapsid measuring 18-26 nm and a genome length of 4000-6000 nucleotides. [1, 2] Phylogenetic analysis of the complete genome of human bocavirus (see image below) has shown that the virus is most closely related to the significant veterinary pathogens bovine parvovirus and canine minute virus (hence the name, boca virus), which are members of the genus Bocavirus, family Parvoviridae. A better known member of this family is parvovirus B19.
Nucleic acid amplification via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been used to detect human bocavirus in respiratory samples from children with acute respiratory tract infection worldwide. [3, 4] More recently, human bocavirus has been implicated in respiratory tract infections in adults and in acute gastroenteritis in children and adults. However, the pathogenetic role of human bocavirus remains uncertain, as other viruses have often been co-detected in pediatric lower respiratory tract infections positive for bocavirus, [5] and modified Koch’s postulates have not yet been fulfilled for this virus. Furthermore, its causative role in respiratory tract infection in adults remains to be elucidated.
The pathophysiology of human bocavirus infection is not yet fully understood. Most studies have been retrospective PCR-based analyses of specimens from patients with acute respiratory tract infection. The vast majority of human bocavirus-positive samples have been derived from infants and young children. Viral genome has also been detected in blood and feces, [6] the significance of which remains to be elucidated.
Human bocavirus is often found in the presence of another pathogen or other pathogens in respiratory specimens (33%) and stool samples (56%), [7] raising concerns about its primary role as a causative agent. [8] To further cloud the picture, human bocavirus 2 (HBoV2) and human bocavirus 3 (HBoV3) are newly discovered bocaviruses. [9, 10] In one study, the prevalence of HBoV3 was low, and it was not associated with acute gastroenteritis, while HBoV2 was found to be the third most common cause of pediatric acute gastroenteritis. [11] More recent studies have called into question the role of bocavirus in acute gastroenteritis, however. [12]
HBoV1 virus infection has a clinical presentation that is very similar to that of rhinovirus infection. No association between HBoV and asthma development has been proven, but HBoV does have an association with Th1/Th2 responses in the nasopharyngeal mucosa. [13] Nonetheless, HBoV has been isolated from patient’s respiratory secretions during asthma attacks. Lu et al reported that an additional virus or viruses were detected in up to 77% of cases. Coronavirus and parainfluenza virus were the most common coinfectors (30% and 28%, respectively). Only 22% of patients had an infection with HBoV1 alone. [14]
HBoV type 4 has now been fully sequenced. The gene sequences of strains, 1, 2, 3 and 4 vary considerably, up to 68%-80%. All the bocaviruses have been shown to have the same putative intermediate structures. It is believed that the bocavirus family can be associated with cancer development and respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases.
Bocavirus is considered to be part of the parvovirus family, but their replication is completely different. [15] This virus enters the host through the respiratory system, moves to the bloodstream, and then reaches the gastrointestinal tract. It can also be acquired by oral ingestion. Basaranoglu et al reported two cases of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) in which HBoV was detected via PCR of nasopharyngeal secretions. HLH triggered by viral infection does not respond to antiviral therapy. IVIG or steroids may be helpful. [16] HBoV1 infection initiates a DNA damage response (DDR), activating all three phosphatidylinositol 3-kinaserelated kinases (PI3KKs): ATM, ATR, and DNA-PKcs. HBoV1 replicates only in terminally differentiated, non-dividing cells. [17]
HBoV has been found in 10% of respiratory secretions from healthy children during winter months worldwide. In hospitalized patients with respiratory infections, HBoV is detected in up to 18% of cases. [16]
United States
A study by Chow et al (2008) reported that human bocavirus was detected by PCR in respiratory specimens from 4 of 273 (1.5%) hospitalized adults in whom no alternate viral etiology was identified. All had underlying pulmonary disease, and two had underlying cardiac disease. In comparison, respiratory specimens from 36 of 1539 (2.3%) pediatric patients were positive for bocavirus. [18]
International
In 3 studies, human bocavirus was detected via PCR in respiratory secretions from 1 of 126 (0.8%), [19] 3 of 202 (1.5%), [20] , and 3.1% [21] of adults with respiratory tract infection. Five adults hospitalized with bocavirus-associated pneumonia were included in a case series. [22] Another series included one hospitalized and 4 outpatient cases of bocavirus-associated pneumonia in adults. [23]
A 5-year study of immunosuppressed and nonimmunosuppressed children in Mexico yielded the first report of co-infection with human bocavirus and adenovirus. [24]
Serologic responses to human bocavirus infection have also been documented. A 2008 study by Lindner found an immunoglobulin G (IgG) response in 280 of 299 (94%) of adults, while immunoglobulin M (IgM) results were positive in 2 of 299 cases (1%). [25]
Tozer et al (2009) reported positive PCR results using fecal specimens from 18 of 275 (4.8%) adults with acute gastroenteritis. [6]
No seasonal pattern of infection has yet emerged. [23, 26]
Human bocavirus has largely been described in young children with acute respiratory tract infection. However, the prevalence and pathogenicity of bocavirus infection in immunocompromised patients is largely unknown. A case of atypical bocavirus-associated pneumonia in an immunocompromised adult has been described. [27]
It is well known that some viruses can cause cancer; some studies have reported an association between HBoV and colon cancer. HBoV was isolated in approximately 25% of patients with colon cancer. Direct causation has not been established; no evidence suggests that infection with HBoV can alter or predict the outcome or degree of colonic malignancy. However, it cannot be disregarded that this virus, specifically genotype 1, has been found in patients with adenocarcinomas, and further studies are needed. [28]
Like many other upper respiratory viral infections, bocavirus infection is self-limited, but some reports have described complications, including fatal ones. Dr. Ursic reported an 18-month-old infant with chronic lung disease of prematurity in whom HBoV1 was the only virus detected. [29] Piñata et al found that HBoV often presents as a co-infector with coronaviruses. The clinical presentation was found to be related to the viral load and the interaction between the HBoV with the host and comorbidities. [30]
Bocavirus infection has no known racial predilection.
Bocavirus infection has no known sexual predilection.
Human bocavirus has largely been detected in children with respiratory tract infection. One study from Brazil revealed human bocavirus infection in children younger than 2 months, suggesting that the infection may occur at a very early age. [31]
Allander T, Tammi MT, Eriksson M, Bjerkner A, Tiveljung-Lindell A, Andersson B. Cloning of a human parvovirus by molecular screening of respiratory tract samples. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Sep 6. 102(36):12891-6. [Medline].
Allander T, Jartti T, Gupta S, Niesters HG, Lehtinen P, Osterback R, et al. Human bocavirus and acute wheezing in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Apr 1. 44(7):904-10. [Medline].
Schildgen O, Müller A, Allander T, Mackay IM, Völz S, Kupfer B, et al. Human bocavirus: passenger or pathogen in acute respiratory tract infections?. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008 Apr. 21(2):291-304, table of contents. [Medline].
Lu QB, Wo Y, Wang HY, Huang DD, Zhao J, Zhang XA, et al. Epidemic and molecular evolution of human bocavirus in hospitalized children with acute respiratory tract infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 29. [Medline].
Weissbrich B, Neske F, Schubert J, Tollmann F, Blath K, Blessing K, et al. Frequent detection of bocavirus DNA in German children with respiratory tract infections. BMC Infect Dis. 2006 Jul 11. 6:109. [Medline].
Tozer SJ, Lambert SB, Whiley DM, Bialasiewicz S, Lyon MJ, Nissen MD, et al. Detection of human bocavirus in respiratory, fecal, and blood samples by real-time PCR. J Med Virol. 2009 Mar. 81(3):488-93. [Medline].
Lau SK, Yip CC, Que TL, Lee RA, Au-Yeung RK, Zhou B, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of human bocavirus in respiratory and fecal samples from children in Hong Kong. J Infect Dis. 2007 Oct 1. 196(7):986-93. [Medline].
Mackay IM. Human bocavirus: multisystem detection raises questions about infection. J Infect Dis. 2007 Oct 1. 196(7):968-70. [Medline].
Kantola K, Hedman L, Arthur J, Alibeto A, Delwart E, Jartti T. Seroepidemiology of human bocaviruses 1-4. J Infect Dis. 2011 Nov. 204(9):1403-12. [Medline].
Tyumentsev AI, Tikunova NV, Tikunov AY, Babkin IV. Recombination in the evolution of human bocavirus. Infect Genet Evol. 2014 Sep 2. [Medline].
Arthur JL, Higgins GD, Davidson GP, Givney RC, Ratcliff RM. A novel bocavirus associated with acute gastroenteritis in Australian children. PLoS Pathog. 2009 Apr. 5(4):e1000391. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Nawaz S, Allen DJ, Aladin F, Gallimore C, Iturriza-Gómara M. Human bocaviruses are not significantly associated with gastroenteritis: results of retesting archive DNA from a case control study in the UK. PLoS One. 2012. 7(7):e41346. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Lukkarinen H, Söderlund-Venermo M, Vuorinen T, Allander T, Hedman K, Simell O, et al. Human bocavirus 1 may suppress rhinovirus-associated immune response in wheezing children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014 Jan. 133 (1):256-8.e1-4. [Medline].
Lu QB, Wo Y, Wang HY, Huang DD, Zhao J, Zhang XA, et al. Epidemic and molecular evolution of human bocavirus in hospitalized children with acute respiratory tract infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2015 Jan. 34 (1):75-81. [Medline].
Babkin IV, Tyumentsev AI, Tikunov AY, Zhirakovskaia EV, Netesov SV, Tikunova NV. A study of the human bocavirus replicative genome structures. Virus Res. 2015 Jan 2. 195:196-202. [Medline].
Tanir Basaranoglu S, Aykac K, Ozsurekci Y, Bajin I, Tavil B, Gumruk F, et al. Human Bocavirus: Can It Trigger Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis?. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2017 Nov. 39 (8):e504-e507. [Medline].
Deng X, Xu P, Zou W, Shen W, Peng J, Liu K, et al. DNA Damage Signaling Is Required for Replication of Human Bocavirus 1 DNA in Dividing HEK293 Cells. J Virol. 2017 Jan 1. 91 (1):[Medline].
Chow BD, Huang YT, Esper FP. Evidence of human bocavirus circulating in children and adults, Cleveland, Ohio. J Clin Virol. 2008 Nov. 43(3):302-6. [Medline].
Longtin J, Bastien M, Gilca R, Leblanc E, de Serres G, Bergeron MG. Human bocavirus infections in hospitalized children and adults. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Feb. 14(2):217-21. [Medline].
Ringshausen FC, Tan AY, Allander T, Borg I, Arinir U, Kronsbein J, et al. Frequency and clinical relevance of human bocavirus infection in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2009. 4(1):111-7. [Medline].
Garbino J, Soccal PM, Aubert JD, Rochat T, Meylan P, Thomas Y, et al. Respiratory viruses in bronchoalveolar lavage: a hospital-based cohort study in adults. Thorax. 2009 May. 64(5):399-404. [Medline].
Fry AM, Lu X, Chittaganpitch M, Peret T, Fischer J, Dowell SF, et al. Human bocavirus: a novel parvovirus epidemiologically associated with pneumonia requiring hospitalization in Thailand. J Infect Dis. 2007 Apr 1. 195(7):1038-45. [Medline].
Bastien N, Brandt K, Dust K, Ward D, Li Y. Human Bocavirus infection, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 May. 12(5):848-50. [Medline].
Uribe-Gutiérrez G, Hernández-Santos H, Manjarrez-Zavala ME, Rosete-Olvera DP, Nava-Frías M, Moreno-Espinosa S, et al. Prevalence and genotypes of the adenovirus infection as well detection of co-infection with bocavirus in Mexican immunosuppressed and non-immunosuppressed children with pneumonia. Clin Lab. 2014. 60(8):1277-85. [Medline].
Lindner J, Karalar L, Zehentmeier S, Plentz A, Pfister H, Struff W, et al. Humoral immune response against human bocavirus VP2 virus-like particles. Viral Immunol. 2008 Dec. 21(4):443-9. [Medline].
Maggi F, Andreoli E, Pifferi M, Meschi S, Rocchi J, Bendinelli M. Human bocavirus in Italian patients with respiratory diseases. J Clin Virol. 2007 Apr. 38(4):321-5. [Medline].
Kupfer B, Vehreschild J, Cornely O, Kaiser R, Plum G, Viazov S. Severe pneumonia and human bocavirus in adult. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 Oct. 12(10):1614-6. [Medline].
Abdel-Moneim AS, El-Fol HA, Kamel MM, Soliman AS, Mahdi EA, El-Gammal AS, et al. Screening of human bocavirus in surgically excised cancer specimens. Arch Virol. 2016 Aug. 161 (8):2095-102. [Medline].
Uršič T, Krivec U, Kalan G, Petrovec M. Fatal human bocavirus infection in an 18-month-old child with chronic lung disease of prematurity. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2015 Jan. 34 (1):111-2. [Medline].
Piñana JL, Madrid S, Pérez A, Hernández-Boluda JC, Giménez E, Terol MJ, et al. Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus and Bocavirus Respiratory Infections after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation: A Prospective Single-Center Study. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2018 Mar. 24 (3):563-570. [Medline].
Souza EL, Ramos JG, Proença-Módena JL, Diniz A, Carvalho G, Ciuffo I, et al. Human bocavirus in very young infants hospitalized with acute respiratory infection in northeast Brazil. J Trop Pediatr. 2010 Apr. 56(2):125-7. [Medline].
Dina J, Vabret A, Gouarin S, Petitjean J, Lecoq J, Brouard J, et al. Detection of human bocavirus in hospitalised children. J Paediatr Child Health. 2009 Mar. 45(3):149-53. [Medline].
Choi JH, Chung YS, Kim KS, Lee WJ, Chung IY, Oh HB, et al. Development of real-time PCR assays for detection and quantification of human bocavirus. J Clin Virol. 2008 Jul. 42(3):249-53. [Medline].
Kahn JS, Kesebir D, Cotmore SF, D’Abramo A Jr, Cosby C, Weibel C, et al. Seroepidemiology of human bocavirus defined using recombinant virus-like particles. J Infect Dis. 2008 Jul 1. 198(1):41-50. [Medline].
Arnold JC, Singh KK, Spector SA, Sawyer MH. Human bocavirus: prevalence and clinical spectrum at a children’s hospital. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Aug 1. 43(3):283-8. [Medline].
Beder LB, Hotomi M, Ogami M, Yamauchi K, Shimada J, Billal DS, et al. Clinical and microbiological impact of human bocavirus on children with acute otitis media. Eur J Pediatr. 2009 Nov. 168(11):1365-72. [Medline].
Borchardt RA, Rolston KV. Respiratory tract infections: emerging viral pathogens. JAAPA. 2012 Oct. 25(10):19-20. [Medline].
Cecchini S, Negrete A, Virag T, Graham BS, Cohen JI, Kotin RM. Evidence of prior exposure to human bocavirus as determined by a retrospective serological study of 404 serum samples from adults in the United States. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2009 May. 16(5):597-604. [Medline].
Garbino J, Inoubli S, Mossdorf E, Weber R, Tamm M, Soccal P, et al. Respiratory viruses in HIV-infected patients with suspected respiratory opportunistic infection. AIDS. 2008 Mar 30. 22(6):701-5. [Medline].
Lindner J, Karalar L, Schimanski S, Pfister H, Struff W, Modrow S. Clinical and epidemiological aspects of human bocavirus infection. J Clin Virol. 2008 Dec. 43(4):391-5. [Medline].
Lindner J, Modrow S. Human bocavirus–a novel parvovirus to infect humans. Intervirology. 2008. 51(2):116-22. [Medline].
Lindner J, Zehentmeier S, Franssila R, Barabas S, Schroeder J, Deml L. CD4+ T helper cell responses against human bocavirus viral protein 2 viruslike particles in healthy adults. J Infect Dis. 2008 Dec 1. 198(11):1677-84. [Medline].
Lu X, Gooding LR, Erdman DD. Human bocavirus in tonsillar lymphocytes. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Aug. 14(8):1332-4. [Medline].
Müller A, Klinkenberg D, Vehreschild J, Cornely O, Tillmann RL, Franzen C, et al. Low prevalence of human metapneumovirus and human bocavirus in adult immunocompromised high risk patients suspected to suffer from Pneumocystis pneumonia. J Infect. 2009 Mar. 58(3):227-31. [Medline].
Pradeep Kumar Mada, MD, MRCP(UK) Fellow, Division of Infectious Disease, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport
Pradeep Kumar Mada, MD, MRCP(UK) is a member of the following medical societies: Indian Medical Association, Louisiana State Medical Society, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of the United Kingdom
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Mohammad J Alam, MD Assistant Professor of Medicine, Departments of Internal Medicine, Infectious Disease, and Emergency Medicine, University Health, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport; Affiliate Staff Physician, Department of Internal Medicine (Infectious Disease), Schumpert Medical Center
Mohammad J Alam, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Southern Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD Professor, Chief of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University School of Medicine
Pranatharthi Haran Chandrasekar, MBBS, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Society for Microbiology, International Immunocompromised Host Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Mary D Nettleman, MD, MS, MACP Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine
Mary D Nettleman, MD, MS, MACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, Association of Professors of Medicine, Central Society for Clinical and Translational Research, Infectious Diseases Society of America, Society of General Internal Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Ted Louie, MD, FACP Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School; Adjunct Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine; Partner, Highland Park Medical Associates
Ted Louie, MD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Physicians, American Medical Association, Infectious Diseases Society of America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Kavipriya Umapathy, MBChB Resident Physician, Department of Pediatrics, UCSF Fresno, Department of Pediatrics, St Peter’s University Hospital
Kavipriya Umapathy, MBChB is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Pediatrics
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Bocavirus
Research & References of Bocavirus|A&C Accounting And Tax Services
Source
0 Comments