Chloropicrin Poisoning
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Chloropicrin is a soil fumigant used for its broad biocidal and fungicidal properties, primarily in high-value crops such as strawberries, peppers, onions, tobacco, flowers, tomatoes, and nursery crops. [1] John Stenhouse, a Scottish chemist and inventor, synthesized chloropicrin in 1848. Because chloropicrin is toxic by all routes of entry, it has the potential for widespread destruction as a chemical warfare agent.
For patient education information, see Chemical Warfare and Personal Protective Equipment.
Chloropicrin is a colorless–to–light green oily liquid with an intense and penetrating odor. Even though chloropicrin is not flammable, it poses a significant explosion hazard if involved in a fire. Bulk containers of this liquid are shock sensitive and can detonate. Chloropicrin is an irritant to all body surfaces. This liquid decomposes in the environment. Photochemical reactions with chloropicrin produce phosgene; other decomposition products include nitrogen oxides and chlorine compounds.
Chloropicrin photodegrades, with a half-life of 20 days. It is known to undergo violent reactions with aniline, 3-bromopropyne, sodium hydroxide/alcohol solutions, sodium methoxide, and propargyl bromide. Hazardous polymerization does not occur with chloropicrin. The chemical structure of chloropicrin is portrayed in the image below.
The odor is a distinctive warning property of this liquid compound.
Table. Symptoms According to Concentrations (Open Table in a new window)
1 ppm*
Irritation with pain in the eyes
4 ppm
Incapacitates exposed individuals
20 ppm
Causes definite bronchial or pulmonary lesions
*Concentrations expressed in parts of material per million parts of air or water.
Overexposure leads to irritation of the nose and throat. Chloropicrin is a lacrimator. Exposure to vapors leads to coughing, labored breathing, sore throat, dizziness, bluish skin, vomiting, and in some instances, chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema. [2]
Contact with chloropicrin can lead to chemical burns or dermatitis manifested by red, cracked, irritated skin. The extent of skin injury depends on the concentration and duration of exposure. Contact with the eyes can cause pain, redness, and tearing. Prolonged eye exposure to chloropicrin can cause blindness. Entrance through damaged skin causes similar symptoms as those seen in overexposure through inhalation.
If ingested, chloropicrin can cause burns to the mouth, throat, and esophagus. Other symptoms are similar to those of overexposure through inhalation. Ingestion of large quantities of chloropicrin liquid can be fatal.
Overexposure to chloropicrin by injection can lead to redness and irritation of surrounding tissues. Other symptoms are similar to those of overexposure through inhalation.
Dermatitis may result from repeated exposure to chloropicrin.
United States
Chloropicrin is commonly used as a soil fumigant for agricultural pest control. [3] Human exposures have occurred in the United States, usually in residential areas in close proximity to agricultural areas.
The most recently reported large-scale exposure occurred in Kern County, California, in 2003. [4] One hundred sixty-five people developed symptoms as a result of off-site drift of chloropicrin from a nearby agricultural site. Peak concentrations of chloropicrin were estimated to exceed 1 part per million. Exposed persons reported the following signs and symptoms:
Fatal chloropicrin exposures have been reported. An intentional ingestion of 100 mL of chloropicrin sodium solution resulted in death from metabolic acidosis and acute heart failure approximately 7 hours after ingestion. [5] Homicidal intoxication has also been reported, in which an 18-year-old female died approximately 4 hours after being sprayed with a liquid that was later determined to be chloropicrin. Postmortem examination demonstrated severe pulmonary edema. [6]
Elevations of creatine phosphokinase levels have been described in the setting of chloropicrin exposure and may represent some degree of rhabdomyolysis. [7] Chloropicrin may cause methemoglobinemia. [8]
Jiang W, Hernandez B, Richmond D, Yanga N. Harvesters in strawberry fields: A literature review of pesticide exposure, an observation of their work activities, and a model for exposure prediction. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2017 Jul. 27 (4):391-397. [Medline].
Nagami H, Suenaga T, Nakazaki M. Pesticide exposure and subjective symptoms of cut-flower farmers. J Rural Med. 2017 May. 12 (1):7-11. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Gunier RB, Bradman A, Castorina R, Holland NT, Avery D, Harley KG, et al. Residential proximity to agricultural fumigant use and IQ, attention and hyperactivity in 7-year old children. Environ Res. 2017 Oct. 158:358-365. [Medline].
O’Malley MA, Edmiston S, Richmond D, Ibarra M, Barry T, Smith M, et al. Illness associated with drift of chloropicrin soil fumigant into a residential area–Kern County, California, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004 Aug 20. 53(32):740-2. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Honda H, Kawashima T, Kaku N, Kawasaki K. [A case of fatal chloropicrine poisoning induced by ingestion]. Chudoku Kenkyu. 2002 Oct. 15(4):381-4. [Medline].
Gonmori K, Muto H, Yamamoto T, Takahashi K. A case of homicidal intoxication by chloropicrin. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1987 Jun. 8(2):135-8. [Medline].
Prudhomme JC, Bhatia R, Nutik JM, Shusterman DJ. Chest wall pain and possible rhabdomyolysis after chloropicrin exposure. A case series. J Occup Environ Med. 1999 Jan. 41(1):17-22. [Medline].
Dow AgroSciences. Material Safety Data Sheet: Chloropicrin. Available at http://www.vikanemonitor.com/images/chloropicrin_msds.pdf. 7/22/99; Accessed: October 16, 2018.
Gaskin S, Heath L, Pisaniello D, Edwards JW, Logan M, Baxter C. Dermal absorption of fumigant gases during HAZMAT incident exposure scenarios-Methyl bromide, sulfuryl fluoride, and chloropicrin. Toxicol Ind Health. 2017 Jul. 33 (7):547-554. [Medline].
Goldman LR, Mengle D, Epstein DM, Fredson D, Kelly K, Jackson RJ. Acute symptoms in persons residing near a field treated with the soil fumigants methyl bromide and chloropicrin. West J Med. 1987 Jul. 147(1):95-8. [Medline].
Harber LF. The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War. 1986. 15-40.
McEvoy GK, Litvak K, Welsh, Jr. OH. AHFS 96 Drug Information. 1996. 861-864, 2654-2657.
Smart JK. History of chemical and biological warfare fact sheets. Special Study 50; US Army Chemical and Biologic Defense Command. 1996.
Tintinalli JE. Emergency medicine. JAMA. 1996 Jun 19. 275(23):1804-5. [Medline].
Wilhelm SN, Sheipier K, Lawrence H. Environmental fate of chloropicrin. Fumigants: Environmental Fate, Exposure, and Analysis. 1996.
1 ppm*
Irritation with pain in the eyes
4 ppm
Incapacitates exposed individuals
20 ppm
Causes definite bronchial or pulmonary lesions
*Concentrations expressed in parts of material per million parts of air or water.
Kermit D Huebner, MD, FACEP Research Director, Carl R Darnall Army Medical Center
Kermit D Huebner, MD, FACEP is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Emergency Medicine, Association of Military Surgeons of the US, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, Society of United States Air Force Flight Surgeons
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
David N Trickey, MD Staff Physician, Department of Emergency Medicine, Martin Army Community Hospital
David N Trickey, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Emergency Medicine, American College of Emergency Physicians
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Zygmunt F Dembek, PhD, MPH, MS, LHD Associate Professor, Department of Military and Emergency Medicine, Adjunct Assistant Professor, Department of Preventive Medicine and Biometrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, F Edward Hebert School of Medicine
Zygmunt F Dembek, PhD, MPH, MS, LHD is a member of the following medical societies: American Chemical Society, New York Academy of Sciences
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Mark Keim, MD Founder, DisasterDoc, LLC; Adjunct Professor, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health; Adjunct Professor, Harvard Affiliated Disaster Medicine Fellowship
Mark Keim, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American College of Emergency Physicians
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
The authors and editors of Medscape Reference gratefully acknowledge the contributions of previous author, Joanne Williams, MD, to the development and writing of this article.
Chloropicrin Poisoning
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