Enterovirus D68

by promotiondept | Feb 26, 2019 | Uncategorized | 0 comments

All Premium Themes And WEBSITE Utilities Tools You Ever Need! Greatest 100% Free Bonuses With Any Purchase.

Greatest CYBER MONDAY SALES with Bonuses are offered to following date: Get Started For Free!
Purchase Any Product Today! Premium Bonuses More Than $10,997 Will Be Emailed To You To Keep Even Just For Trying It Out.
Click Here To See Greatest Bonuses

and Try Out Any Today!

Here’s the deal.. if you buy any product(s) Linked from this sitewww.Knowledge-Easy.com including Clickbank products, as long as not Google’s product ads, I am gonna Send ALL to you absolutely FREE!. That’s right, you WILL OWN ALL THE PRODUCTS, for Now, just follow these instructions:

1. Order the product(s) you want by click here and select the Top Product, Top Skill you like on this site ..

2. Automatically send you bonuses or simply send me your receipt to consultingadvantages@yahoo.com Or just Enter name and your email in the form at the Bonus Details.

3. I will validate your purchases. AND Send Themes, ALL 50 Greatests Plus The Ultimate Marketing Weapon & “WEBMASTER’S SURVIVAL KIT” to you include ALL Others are YOURS to keep even you return your purchase. No Questions Asked! High Classic Guaranteed for you! Download All Items At One Place.

That’s it !

*Also Unconditionally, NO RISK WHAT SO EVER with Any Product you buy this website,

60 Days Money Back Guarantee,

IF NOT HAPPY FOR ANY REASON, FUL REFUND, No Questions Asked!

Download Instantly in Hands Top Rated today!

Remember, you really have nothing to lose if the item you purchased is not right for you! Keep All The Bonuses.

Super Premium Bonuses Are Limited Time Only!

Day(s)

Hour(s)

Minute(s)

Second(s)

Get Paid To Use Facebook, Twitter and YouTube
Online Social Media Jobs Pay $25 - $50/Hour.
No Experience Required. Work At Home, $316/day!
View 1000s of companies hiring writers now!
Order Now!

MOST POPULAR

*****
Customer Support Chat Job: $25/hr
Chat On Twitter Job - $25/hr
Get Paid to chat with customers on
a business’s Twitter account.
Try Free Now!

Get Paid To Review Apps On Phone
Want to get paid $810 per week online?
Get Paid To Review Perfect Apps Weekly.
Order Now!

Look For REAL Online Job?
Get Paid To Write Articles $200/day
View 1000s of companies hiring writers now!
Try-Out Free Now!

How To Develop Your Skill For Great Success And Happiness Including Become CPA? | Additional special tips From Admin

Competency Improvement is usually the number 1 critical and major component of obtaining genuine achievement in all professionals as you found in all of our contemporary society and even in Around the world. Thus fortunate enough to talk about together with you in the adhering to in regard to just what prosperous Expertise Improvement is; the simplest way or what techniques we operate to reach desires and at some point one definitely will do the job with what anybody really loves to achieve every single day with regard to a extensive lifestyle. Is it so very good if you are capable to acquire properly and acquire accomplishment in whatever you dreamed, steered for, self-displined and did wonders really hard each individual day and undoubtedly you turned out to be a CPA, Attorney, an manager of a great manufacturer or possibly even a health practitioner who will be able to seriously contribute wonderful support and valuations to some others, who many, any contemporary society and neighborhood unquestionably popular and respected. I can's think I can guidance others to be finest professional level exactly who will contribute substantial methods and alleviation valuations to society and communities right now. How pleased are you if you grow to be one like so with your personally own name on the headline? I get got there at SUCCESS and prevail over almost all the really hard pieces which is passing the CPA qualifications to be CPA. On top of that, we will also go over what are the stumbling blocks, or many other situations that will be on the manner and the best way I have personally experienced them and could demonstrate to you the right way to address them. | From Admin and Read More at Cont'.

Enterovirus D68

No Results

processing….

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68), also known as enterovirus 68 (EV-68 or EV68), is a non-poliovirus, nonenveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Picornaviridae family. See the images below. EV-D68 is transmitted person to person by contact with respiratory and gastrointestinal secretions.

While most of the approximately 100 species of enteroviruses primarily infect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, EV-D68 has tropism for the respiratory tract. It causes acute respiratory disease ranging from mild upper respiratory tract symptoms to severe pneumonia. In an outpatient setting, EV-D68 disease has manifested most commonly among persons younger than 20 years and adults aged 50-59 years. Inpatients have predominately been children.^{[1, 2]}

EV-D68 was first isolated in 4 pediatric patients with lower respiratory tract infection in California in 1962.^[3]

EV-D68, as with other enterovirus species, circulates seasonally in the summer and especially in fall months.^{[4, 5]}

In August 2014, EV-D68 emerged as a cause of severe respiratory infections. Hospitals in Illinois and Missouri reported an increased incidence of rhinovirus and enterovirus infection, with 30 of 36 isolates from the nasopharyngeal secretions of patients with severe respiratory illness identified as EV-D68. Following these reports, an unusually high number of patients with severe respiratory illness were admitted to these facilities, presumably with EV-D68 infection.^[2]

EV-D68 outbreaks have also been reported in Europe, Argentina, China, and Japan.^{[6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]}

Susceptible patients generally have underlying asthma and wheezing. In addition to respiratory illness, EV-D68 has also been associated with rare and lethal central nervous system (CNS) infection with polioviruslike manifestations.

Enteroviruses typically spread through the fecal-oral route, although some serotypes, like EV-D68, also spread via respiratory secretions. The enteroviruses invade the submucosal tissues of the distal pharynx and alimentary tract. The incubation period varies from 3-10 days, leading to a transient minor viremia that delivers virus to lymphoid tissues. Ongoing viral replication results in major viremia that spreads the virus to targets such as the CNS.

EV-D68 manipulates the host cell cycle in order to promote viral replication. The nonstructural viral proteins 3C and 3D appear to have a role in arresting the host cells in the G0/G1 phase, which is most favorable for EV-D68 replication.^[13]

Enterovirus neurovirulence is believed to result from direct cellular destruction.^{[14, 15]}In vitro neuron-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 5 (ICAM-5/telencephalin) was noted to be a cellular receptor for EV-D68.^[16]EV-D68 pathogenesis was examined by Schieble et al^[17]in suckling mice by intrathecal and intraperitoneal inoculation with 4 strains of EV-D68. CNS pathogenicity was observed only in mice inoculated with the Rhyne strain, showing limb tremor, weakness, paralysis, and death. This experiment is consistent with case reports of fatal meningoencephalitis resulting from EV-D68, serving as evidence of the neurovirulence of the virus. Ferrets with EV-D68 virus infection have been shown to have minimal clinical symptoms and have been proposed to be used as animal models for EV-D68 infection and pathogenesis.^[18]

The immune response to enteroviruses is mainly humoral, mediated by secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA) in nasal and alimentary secretions. Serum neutralizing immunoglobulin G (IgG) is detected 7-10 days after infection and persists for life after natural enteroviral infection. Macrophages also play an important role in viral clearance.^{[14, 15]}

EV-D68 has been shown to avoid the innate immune system’s responses via 3C^pro protein, which targets key players in both Toll-like receptor–mediated signaling and retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptor pathway.^{[19, 20]}

Human EV-D68 is a small nonenveloped virus with single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome of 7.5 kilobases. It belongs to the enterovirus D species, within the Enterovirus genus in the Picornaviridae family.^{[21, 3]}EV-D68 is acid-labile and behaves more like human rhinoviruses in its affinity for the respiratory tract.

Enterovirus D68 was first identified in California in 1962 in 4 pediatric patients with bronchiolitis and pneumonia.^[3]Enterovirus surveillance in the United States between 1970 and 2005 identified only 26 cases of EV-D68 infection. In autumn 2009, in the context of pursuing respiratory virus surveillance during the H1N1 pandemic, a cluster of EV-D68 cases were detected in New York.^[22]

A similar increase in detection of EV-D68 has been reported worldwide, although the increased incidence was believed to have resulted from the use of more highly sensitive virus identification methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Verifying stored respiratory samples from Yamagata, Japan and the Netherlands revealed EV-D68–positive samples in recent years.^[23]In 2010, 40 cases were reported in Yamagata and 24 in the Netherlands.

The frequency of outbreaks may vary among countries.^[23]In the Philippines, for example, EV-D68 outbreaks in the last decade appear to be cyclic in 2-year intervals: 2008-2009, 2011, and 2013-2014.^[23]This may be partly due to differences in regional climate. In South Africa, 8 cases were detected between May 2000 and May 2001 in children aged 5-23 months. Three cases were reported from February to March 2010 in Senegal and 5 cases in June 2008 in Gambia. The climate in these countries consists primarily of dry and rainy seasons, but a much larger sample will be needed to assess the seasonal circulating patterns in non-temperate regions.^[22]

From mid-August to October 2014, a total of 691 cases of EV-D68 infection had been reported in 46 states in the United States, especially among children with severe respiratory illnesses.^[23]The ongoing 2014 EV-D68 outbreak in the United States is the largest and most widespread identified to date. Seven co-circulating strains of EV-D68 have been identified in this outbreak by extracting genome sequences generated from RNA from nasopharyngeal swab supernatant or from virus isolates obtained by inoculation of nasopharyngeal supernatants into human rhabdomyosarcoma cells. The VP1 gene sequences of the 7 EV-D68 strains are most closely related to EV-D68 viruses detected previously in the United States, Europe, and Asia in recent years.^[3]

In August 2014, increased pediatric hospitalizations of children with severe respiratory illness were reported by Children’s Mercy Hospital in Kansas City, Missouri, and the University of Chicago Medicine Comer Children’s Hospital in Illinois. Enterovirus D68 was identified in 19 of 22 patients in Kansas City and 11 of 14 specimens in Illinois. After these reports, an unusually high number of admissions for acute severe respiratory dysfunction continued.^[24]

In September 2014, a case of acute flaccid paralysis following enterovirus D68–associated pneumonia was reported in France.^[21]

From August 8 to September 15, 2014, 9 children aged 1-18 years (median age, 8 years) evaluated at Children’s Hospital Colorado presented with acute neurological illness manifesting as weakness, cranial nerve dysfunction (eg, diplopia, facial droop, dysphagia or dysarthria), or both following a nonspecific febrile upper respiratory illness. Using reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR), 6 of the 8 nasopharyngeal swabs were positive for rhinovirus/enterovirus.^[25]

A few cases of human enterovirus as a cause of respiratory disease in Latin America have been reported. A study was conducted in 8 countries throughout Central and South America, where 3,375 nasopharyngeal swabs from subjects aged 1 month to 25 years (median age, 3 years) with influenzalike symptoms were collected; 84 samples (3%) were positive for human enterovirus via RT-PCR, of which EV-D68 was among the isolated serotypes.^[26]

Between the 1960s and mid-1990s, EV-D68 underwent some genetic rearrangements. Such resulting phenotypic changes are thought to have a role in immune response modulation to the virus, which may aid in viral persistence.^[22]Prior studies indicated that different phylogenetic lineages of EV-D68 co-circulate because of increased variability of the VP1 genomic region, leading to reduced cross-neutralizing antibodies raised against viruses of the major groups.^[1]

EV-D68 circulates between summer and fall and appears to spread by close contact with infected people (cough, saliva, mucus, fomites).

Pediatric patients with a history of asthma, wheezing, or other underlying respiratory disease were shown to be at risk for more severe disease.^[2]Children, especially those aged 1 month to 16 years, appear to be the most susceptible population based on most reports. They represented more than 80% of cases in both the Missouri and Illinois outbreaks (mean age, 4-5 years, respectively).^[2]A 2014 report from the Netherlands found 95% of cases were in children.^[22]Neurological disease has been described most commonly in males.^[27]

The prognosis of EV-D68 infection varies, ranging from mild, self-limited respiratory infection to severe respiratory disease, especially in individuals with asthma.

In patients with CNS involvement, which is rare, residual neurologic deficits can persist. From a series of 23 cases of acute flaccid paralysis reported in California between 2012 and 2014, only 2 tested positive for EV-D68. The remaining cases had no clear etiology. Most cases require extended hospital stays (median, 17 days). Thirteen of 23 patients with available data had prolonged paralysis persisting at 60 days follow-up. In contrast, most patients who presented with mental status changes returned to baseline.^[27]

Preventive measures are as follows:^[25]

Stay home if ill

Wash hands with soap and water

Avoid close contact with those who are ill

Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces

Meijer A, Benschop KS, Donker GA, van der Avoort HG. Continued seasonal circulation of enterovirus D68 in the Netherlands, 2011-2014. Euro Surveill. 2014 Oct 23. 19(42):[Medline].

Midgley CM, Jackson MA, Selvarangan R, Turabelidze G, Obringer E, Johnson D, et al. Severe respiratory illness associated with enterovirus D68 – Missouri and Illinois, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014 Sep 12. 63(36):798-9. [Medline].

Brown BA, Nix WA, Sheth M, Frace M, Oberste MS. Seven Strains of Enterovirus D68 Detected in the United States during the 2014 Severe Respiratory Disease Outbreak. Genome Announc. 2014 Nov 20. 2(6):[Medline]. [Full Text].

Meijer A, van der Sanden S, Snijders BE, Jaramillo-Gutierrez G, Bont L, van der Ent CK, et al. Emergence and epidemic occurrence of enterovirus 68 respiratory infections in The Netherlands in 2010. Virology. 2012 Feb 5. 423(1):49-57. [Medline].

Shaw J, Welch TR, Milstone AM. The role of syndromic surveillance in directing the public health response to the enterovirus D68 epidemic. JAMA Pediatr. 2014 Nov. 168(11):981-2. [Medline].

Cabrerizo M, García-Iñiguez JP, Munell F, et al. First Cases of Severe Flaccid Paralysis Associated With Enterovirus D68 Infection in Spain, 2015-2016. Pediatric Infectious Disease. 2017 Dec 01. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Antona D, Kossorotoff M, Schuffenecker I, et al. Severe paediatric conditions linked with EV-A71 and EV-D68, France, May to October 2016. EuroSurveillance. 2016 Nov 17. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Dyrdak R, Grabbe M, Hammas B, et al. Outbreak of enterovirus D68 of the new B3 lineage in Stockholm, Sweden, August to September 2016. EuroSurveillance. 2016 Nov 17. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Ruggieri V, Paz MI, Peretti MG, et al. Enterovirus D68 infection in a cluster of children with acute flaccid myelitis, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2016. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2017 Nov 01. [Medline].

Xiang Z, Li L, Ren L, et al. Seroepidemiology of enterovirus D68 infection in China. Emerging Microbes & Infections. 2017 May 10. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Chong PF, Kira R, Mori H, et al. Clinical Features of Acute Flaccid Myelitis Temporally Associated with an Enterovirus D68 Outbreak: Results of a Nationwide Survey of Acute Flaccid Paralysis in Japan, August-December 2015. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2017 Oct 06. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Kaida A, Iritani N, Yamamoto SP, et al. Distinct genetic clades of enterovirus D68 detected in 2010, 2013, and 2015 in Osaka City, Japan. Public Library of Science. 2017 Sep 13. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Wang ZY, Zhong T, Wang Y, et al. Human Enterovirus 68 Interferes with the Host Cell Cycle to Facilitate Viral Production. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2017 Feb 8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Schwartz RA. Enteroviruses. Medscape. Available at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/217146-overview. Accessed: December 20, 2014.

Modlin JF. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of enterovirus and parechovirus infections. UpToDate. Available at http://www.uptodate.com/contents/epidemiology-pathogenesis-treatment-and-prevention-of-enterovirus-and-parechovirus-infections.

Wei W, Guo H, Chang J, et al. ICAM-5/Telencephalin Is a Functional Entry Receptor for Enterovirus D68. Cell Host & Microbe. 2016 Oct 27. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Schieble JH, Fox VL, Lennette EH. A probable new human picornavirus associated with respiratory diseases. Am J Epidemiol. 1967 Mar. 85(2):297-310. [Medline].

Zheng HW, Sun M, Guo L, et al. Nasal Infection of Enterovirus D68 Leading to Lower Respiratory Tract Pathogenesis in Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Viruses. 2017 May 10. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Rui Y, Su J, Wang H, et al. Disruption of MDA5-Mediated Innate Immune Responses by the 3C Proteins of Coxsackievirus A16, Coxsackievirus A6, and Enterovirus D68. Journal of Virology. 2017 Jun 09. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Lei X, Xiao X, Wang J. Innate Immunity Evasion by Enteroviruses: Insights into Virus-Host Interaction. Viruses. 2016 Jan 15. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Lang M, Mirand A, Savy N, Henquell C, Maridet S, Perignon R, et al. Acute flaccid paralysis following enterovirus D68 associated pneumonia, France, 2014. Euro Surveill. 2014 Nov 6. 19(44):[Medline].

Tokarz R, Firth C, Madhi SA, Howie SR, Wu W, Sall AA, et al. Worldwide emergence of multiple clades of enterovirus 68. J Gen Virol. 2012 Sep. 93:1952-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Imamura T, Oshitani H. Global reemergence of enterovirus D68 as an important pathogen for acute respiratory infections. Rev Med Virol. 2014 Dec 3. [Medline].

Shaw J, Welch TR, Milstone AM. The role of syndromic surveillance in directing the public health response to the enterovirus D68 epidemic. JAMA Pediatr. 2014 Nov. 168(11):981-2. [Medline].

Pastula DM, Aliabadi N, Haynes AK, Messacar K, Schreiner T, Maloney J, et al. Acute neurologic illness of unknown etiology in children – Colorado, August-September 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014 Oct 10. 63(40):901-2. [Medline].

Garcia J, Espejo V, Nelson M, Sovero M, Villaran MV, Gomez J, et al. Human rhinoviruses and enteroviruses in influenza-like illness in Latin America. Virol J. 2013 Oct 11. 10:305. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Ayscue P, Van Haren K, Sheriff H, Waubant E, Waldron P, Yagi S, et al. Acute flaccid paralysis with anterior myelitis – California, June 2012-June 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014 Oct 10. 63(40):903-6. [Medline].

Maloney JA, Mirsky DM, Messacar K, Dominguez SR, Schreiner T, Stence NV. MRI Findings in Children with Acute Flaccid Paralysis and Cranial Nerve Dysfunction Occurring during the 2014 Enterovirus D68 Outbreak. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2014 Nov 20. [Medline].

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Enterovirus D68 for Health Care Professionals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/non-polio-enterovirus/hcp/EV-D68-hcp.html. Accessed: December 20, 2014.

Wylie TN, Wylie KM, Buller RS, Cannella M, Storch GA. Development and Evaluation of an Enterovirus D68 Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase PCR Assay. J Clin Microbiol. 2015 Aug. 53 (8):2641-7. [Medline].

Zhang Y, Moore DD, Nix WA, et al. Neutralization of Enterovirus D68 isolated from the 2014 US outbreak by commercial intravenous immune globulin products. Journal of Clinical Virology. 2015 Aug. 69:172-175. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Hixon AM, Clarke P, Tyler KL. Evaluating Treatment Efficacy in a Mouse Model of Enterovirus D68-Associated Paralytic Myelitis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2017 Sep 13. 216:1245-1253. [Medline].

Roux, Alexandra, and Sabeen Lulu. A Polio-Like Syndrome in California: Clinical, Radiologic, and Serologic Evaluation of Five Children Identified by a Statewide Laboratory over a Twelve-Months Period. Neurology. April 2014. [Full Text].

Smee DF, Evans WJ, Nicolaou KC, et al. Susceptibilities of enterovirus D68, enterovirus 71, and rhinovirus 87 strains to various antiviral compounds. Antiviral Research. 2016 Jul. 131:61-65. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Patel MC, Wang W, Pletneva LM, et al. Enterovirus D-68 Infection, Prophylaxis, and Vaccination in a Novel Permissive Animal Model, the Cotton Rat (Sigmodon hispidus). Public Library of Science. 2016 Nov 04. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Rhoden E, Zhang M, Nix WA, et al. In Vitro Efficacy of Antiviral Compounds against Enterovirus D68. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2015 Dec. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Kim Y, Kankanamalage AC, Damalanka VC, et al. Potent inhibition of enterovirus D68 and human rhinoviruses by dipeptidyl aldehydes and α-ketoamides. Antiviral Research. 2016 Jan. [Medline]. [Full Text].

HoJoon You, MD Fellow, Department of Infectious Disease, Einstein Medical Center