Intracranial Hemorrhage
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Intracranial hemorrhage (ie, the pathological accumulation of blood within the cranial vault) may occur within brain parenchyma or the surrounding meningeal spaces. Hemorrhage within the meninges or the associated potential spaces, including epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, and subarachnoid hemorrhage, is covered in detail in other articles. Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and extension of parenchymal bleeding into the ventricles (ie, intraventricular hemorrhage [IVH]) are detailed here.
Intracerebral hemorrhage accounts for 8-13% of all strokes and results from a wide spectrum of disorders. Intracerebral hemorrhage is more likely to result in death or major disability than ischemic stroke or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Intracerebral hemorrhage and accompanying edema may disrupt or compress adjacent brain tissue, leading to neurological dysfunction. Substantial displacement of brain parenchyma may cause elevation of intracranial pressure (ICP) and potentially fatal herniation syndromes.
Nontraumatic intracerebral hemorrhage most commonly results from hypertensive damage to blood vessel walls (eg, hypertension, eclampsia, drug abuse), but it also may be due to autoregulatory dysfunction with excessive cerebral blood flow (eg, reperfusion injury, hemorrhagic transformation, cold exposure), rupture of an aneurysm or arteriovenous malformation (AVM), arteriopathy (eg, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, moyamoya), altered hemostasis (eg, thrombolysis, anticoagulation, bleeding diathesis), hemorrhagic necrosis (eg, tumor, infection), or venous outflow obstruction (eg, cerebral venous thrombosis).
Nonpenetrating and penetrating cranial trauma are also common causes of intracerebral hemorrhage.Patients who experience blunt head trauma and subsequently receive warfarin or clopidogrel are considered at increased risk for traumatic intracranial hemorrhage. According to one study, patients receiving clopidogrel have a significantly higher prevalence of immediate traumatic intracranial hemorrhage compared with patients receiving warfarin. Delayed traumatic intracranial hemorrhage is rare and occurred only in patients receiving warfarin. [1]
Chronic hypertension produces a small vessel vasculopathy characterized by lipohyalinosis, fibrinoid necrosis, and development of Charcot-Bouchard aneurysms, affecting penetrating arteries throughout the brain including lenticulostriates, thalamoperforators, paramedian branches of the basilar artery, superior cerebellar arteries, and anterior inferior cerebellar arteries.
Predilection sites for intracerebral hemorrhage include the basal ganglia (40-50%), lobar regions (20-50%), thalamus (10-15%), pons (5-12%), cerebellum (5-10%), and other brainstem sites (1-5%).
Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs in one third of intracerebral hemorrhage cases from extension of thalamic ganglionic bleeding into the ventricular space. Isolated intraventricular hemorrhage frequently arise from subependymal structures including the germinal matrix, AVMs, and cavernous angiomas.
United States
Each year, intracerebral hemorrhage affects approximately 12-15 per 100,000 individuals, including 350 hypertensive hemorrhages per 100,000 elderly individuals. The overall incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage has declined since the 1950s.
International
Asian countries have a higher incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage than other regions of the world.
Annually, more than 20,000 individuals in the United States die of intracerebral hemorrhage. Intracerebral hemorrhage has a 30-day mortality rate of 44%. Pontine or other brainstem intracerebral hemorrhage has a mortality rate of 75% at 24 hours. Hallevi et al reviewed the charts and CT scans of patients with intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) to determine if the extension of the hemorrhage could be measured. Clinical outcome was determined by the modified Rankin Scale (mRS). IVH was also classified with an IVH score. The IVH score allowed rapid estimate of IVH volume by the practitioner and increased predictability for outcome. [2]
Intracerebral hemorrhage has a higher incidence among populations with a higher frequency of hypertension, including African Americans. A higher incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage has been noted in Chinese, Japanese, and other Asian populations, possibly due to environmental factors (eg, a diet rich in fish oils) and/or genetic factors.
Intracerebral hemorrhage has a slight male predominance, though study results have been conflicting.
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy may be more common among women.
Phenylpropanolamine use has been associated with intracerebral hemorrhage in young women. [3]
Incidence of intracerebral hemorrhage increases in individuals older than 55 years and doubles with each decade until age 80 years. The relative risk of intracerebral hemorrhage is greater than 7 in individuals older than 70 years.
In individuals younger than 45 years, lobar hemorrhage is the most common site of and frequently is associated with AVMs.
Subependymal hemorrhage or germinal matrix hemorrhage is primarily seen in premature infants.
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Phase
Time
Hemoglobin
T1
T2
Hyperacute
< 24 hours
Oxyhemoglobin (intracellular)
Iso or hypo
Hyper
Acute
1-3 days
Deoxyhemoglobin (intracellular)
Iso or hypo
Hypo
Early subacute
>3 days
Methemoglobin
Hyper
Hypo
Late subacute
>7 days
Methemoglobin (extracellular)
Hyper
Hyper
Chronic
>14 days
Hemosiderin (extracellular)
Iso or hypo
Hypo
Grade
Hemorrhage Location
I
Subependymal hemorrhage
II
Intraventricular hemorrhage without ventriculomegaly
III
Intraventricular hemorrhage with ventriculomegaly
IV
Intraventricular hemorrhage with parenchymal hemorrhage
David S Liebeskind, MD, FAAN, FAHA, FANA Professor of Neurology and Director, Neurovascular Imaging Research Core, Director, Vascular Neurology Residency Program, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine; Director, UCLA Outpatient Stroke and Neurovascular Programs; Director, UCLA Cerebral Blood Flow Laboratory; Associate Neurology Director, UCLA Stroke Center
David S Liebeskind, MD, FAAN, FAHA, FANA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Heart Association, American Medical Association, American Society of Neuroimaging, American Society of Neuroradiology, National Stroke Association, Stroke Council of the American Heart Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Howard S Kirshner, MD Professor of Neurology, Psychiatry and Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vice Chairman, Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine; Director, Vanderbilt Stroke Center; Program Director, Stroke Service, Vanderbilt Stallworth Rehabilitation Hospital; Consulting Staff, Department of Neurology, Nashville Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Howard S Kirshner, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Neurological Association, American Society of Neurorehabilitation, American Academy of Neurology, American Heart Association, American Medical Association, National Stroke Association, Phi Beta Kappa, Tennessee Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Helmi L Lutsep, MD Professor and Vice Chair, Department of Neurology, Oregon Health and Science University School of Medicine; Associate Director, OHSU Stroke Center
Helmi L Lutsep, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Stroke Association
Disclosure: Medscape Neurology Editorial Advisory Board for: Stroke Adjudication Committee, CREST2; Executive Committee for the NINDS-funded DEFUSE3 Trial; Physician Advisory Board for Coherex Medical.
Jeffrey L Saver, MD, FAHA, FAAN Professor of Neurology, Director, UCLA Stroke Center, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine
Jeffrey L Saver, MD, FAHA, FAAN is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, American Heart Association, American Neurological Association, National Stroke Association
Disclosure: Received the university of california regents receive funds for consulting services on clinical trial design provided to covidien, stryker, and lundbeck. from University of California for consulting.
Intracranial Hemorrhage
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