Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease Imaging
No Results
No Results
processing….
Legg-Calvé-Perthes (LCPD) disease is a childhood hip disorder that results in infarction of the bony epiphysis of the femoral head. LCPD represents idiopathic avascular necrosis of the femoral head. The disease is bilateral in 10-20% of patients and usually affects children aged 4-8 years. When both hips are involved, they are usually affected successively, not simultaneously. A family history is present in 5-6% of patients. [1] In adults, the corresponding condition is termed Chandler disease.
Although the etiology is unclear, certain risk factors have been identified in children, including sex, socioeconomic group, and the presence of an inguinal hernia and genitourinary tract anomalies. More specifically, boys are affected 3 to 5 times more often than girls, and the incidence increases in low socioeconomic groups and in children with low birth weight. [2] Determining the prognosis is important at the time of presentation, because more than 50% of patients with LCPD do not require treatment. [3]
Plain radiography remains the major modality for the evaluation of LCPD. Staging of the disease is based on plain radiographic findings. [4, 5] Scintigraphy is a useful technique in early disease, when plain radiographic findings may be normal; with scintigraphy, abnormalities become apparent earlier in the course of disease than they do with plain radiography. Computed tomography (CT) scans allow early diagnosis of bone collapse and curvilinear zones of sclerosis early in the disease process, when plain radiography is less sensitive. CT scans can also demonstrate subtle changes in the bone trabecular pattern. Ultrasonography is useful in the preliminary diagnosis of transient synovitis of the hip and the onset of LCPD. [6] Hip effusion with capsular distention is well depicted on sonographic images. [7, 8, 9, 10, 11] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is as sensitive as isotopic bone scanning and allows more precise localization of involvement than conventional radiography. [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]
Plain radiographic findings may be entirely normal in early symptomatic disease. Although abnormalities become apparent with scintigraphy earlier in the course of disease than they do with radiography, abnormal scintigraphic findings are nonspecific; findings may be positive in patients with trauma, synovitis, and infections.
The use of CT scanning is limited by the comparatively higher radiation dose. Ultrasonographic diagnosis of LCPD is based on a demonstration of hip effusion, which is a nonspecific finding. On MRI scans, the changes seen as bone marrow edema and joint effusions are nonspecific. Angiography, venography, and arthrography are invasive procedures and do not provide significantly better clinical information for guiding therapeutic options.
The radiologic features of LCPD are demonstrated in the images below.
Several staging schema are used to determine severity of disease and prognosis; these include the Catterall, Salter-Thomson, and Herring systems. [18]
The Catterall classification is based on radiographic appearances and specifies 4 groups during the period of greatest bone loss.
Catterall staging is as follows:
Stage I — Histologic and clinical diagnosis without radiographic findings
Stage II — Sclerosis with or without cystic changes with preservation of the contour and surface of femoral head
Stage III — Loss of structural integrity of the femoral head
Stage IV — Loss of structural integrity of the acetabulum in addition
The Catterall classification was developed to be applied in the fragmentation phase, which results in difficult and inaccurate initial assessment in early phases. Grouping tended to change if the classification was applied too early. Another criticism has been the lack of sufficiently high levels of interobserver agreement. [19]
The Salter-Thomson classification simplifies the Catterall classifications by reducing the groups to 2. The first, called group A, includes Catterall groups I and II; for patients in this group, less than 50% of the head is involved. The second, called group B, includes Catterall groups III and IV; for patients in this group, more than 50% of the head is involved. For both classifications, if less than 50% of the ball is involved, the prognosis is better, whereas if more than 50% is involved, the prognosis is potentially poor.
The Herring classification addresses the integrity of the lateral pillar of the head. In lateral pillar group A, there is no loss of height in the lateral one third of the head, and there is little density change. In lateral pillar group B, there is a lucency and less than 50% loss of lateral height. Sometimes, the head is beginning to extrude from the socket. In lateral pillar group C, there is a more than 50% loss of lateral height.
Reported limitations of the Herring classification include difficulties in reliably classifying hips in the initial stage and the difficulty of classification in bilateral cases, since there is a lack of reference height to compare with. [19]
In a subsequent review of the original study, Herring et al identified a group of hips with radiographic findings that were more severe than those typical of group B but less severe than those seen in group C. A new group, termed B/C borderline, was added to the classification system. However, the introduction of the borderline B/C group has not been found to increase the interobserver agreement or prognostic value of the original Herring classification [19]
Plain radiographs have a sensitivity of 97% and a specificity of 78% in the detection of LCPD. Severe osteoarthritis and infective arthritis may mimic the disease.
Early radiographic signs of LCPD include the following [20] :
Small femoral epiphysis (96%)
Sclerosis of the femoral head with sequestration and collapse (82%)
Slight widening of the joint space caused by thickening of the cartilage, failure of epiphyseal growth, the presence of joint fluid, or joint laxity (60%) (see the images below)
An absence of destruction of the articular cortex, as occurs in bacterial arthritis (destruction of articular cartilage never occurs in LCPD)
Late signs of LCPD on radiographs include the following:
Delayed osseous maturation of a mild degree, a radiolucent crescent line representing a subchondral fracture
Femoral head fragmentation and femoral neck cysts from intramedullary hemorrhage or extension of physeal cartilage into metaphysis, loose bodies, and coxa plana (see the images below)
Coxa magna, or remodeling of the femoral head, which becomes wider and flatter, similar in appearance to a mushroom (see the image below)
Early signs of LCPD on CT scans include the following:
Bone collapse
Curvilinear zones of sclerosis
Subtle changes in bone trabecular pattern
Disruption of an area of condensation of bone formed by a compressive group of trabeculae (abnormal asterisk sign)
Late signs of the disease on CT scans include the following:
Central or peripheral areas of decreased attenuation
Intraosseous cysts
Coronal reconstructions can show subchondral fractures, subtle buckling, or collapse of the articular surface.
When CT scanning is employed, the staging of LCPD determined on the basis of plain radiographic findings is upgraded in 30% of patients. CT scanning is not as sensitive as nuclear medicine or MRI, but it may be used for follow-up imaging in patients with LCPD. CT-scan findings of osteoarthritis and infective arthritis may mimic those of LCPD.
Early in the course of LCPD, irregular foci of low signal intensity or linear segments replace the normal high signal intensity of bone marrow in the femoral epiphysis on T1- and T2-weighted images. Other findings include an intra-articular effusion and a small, laterally displaced ossification nucleus, labral inversion, and femoral head deformity. The differential diagnosis includes severe osteoarthritis, infective arthritis, and other causes of bone marrow edema and joint effusions. MRI is as sensitive as isotopic bone scanning, and it allows more precise localization of involvement than does conventional radiography. MRI is preferred for evaluating the position, form, and size of the femoral head and surrounding soft tissues. [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23]
A preliminary study of diffusion MRI of the neck of the femur in 27 children found that the estimation of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of the neck of the femur in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease is a useful parameter and could be useful in the treatment of LCPD. [24] The study revealed an early and significant increase in the ADC on the pathologic side. This increase could have prognostic value as it is correlated with the Catterall classification.
The MRI characteristics of LCPD are demonstrated in the images below.
Fat-suppressed or short-tau inversion recovery (STIR) sequences are more accurate than plain radiographs in showing degenerative changes of the articular cartilage. These MRIs demonstrate the influx of fluid into areas of articular cartilage irregularity.
The asterisk sign is defined as findings of areas of low signal intensity on T1-weighted images and high signal intensity on T2-weighted images in marrow. The double-line sign occurs in as many as 80% of patients and represents the sclerotic rim, which appears as a signal void. This sign is demonstrated as a line between necrotic and viable bone edges with a hyperintense rim of granulation tissue.
Jaramillo et al found in a study that multipositional MRI with an open magnet was comparable to arthrography for demonstrating containment of the congruency of the articular surfaces of the hip. [12] However, in the evaluation of deformity or loss of the spherical nature of the femoral head, open MRI performed less well.
Sebag et al showed dynamic gadolinium-enhanced subtraction MRI to be a simple and promising means of early recognition of ischemia in LCPD. [13]
Gadolinium-based contrast agents have been linked to the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) or nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy (NFD). For more information, see the eMedicine topic Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis. The disease has occurred in patients with moderate to end-stage renal disease after being given a gadolinium-based contrast agent to enhance MRI or MRA scans. NSF/NFD is a debilitating and sometimes fatal disease. Characteristics include red or dark patches on the skin; burning, itching, swelling, hardening, and tightening of the skin; yellow spots on the whites of the eyes; joint stiffness with trouble moving or straightening the arms, hands, legs, or feet; pain deep in the hip bones or ribs; and muscle weakness. For more information, see Medscape.
In addition, the FDA is requiring a class warning and other safety measures for all gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) concerning gadolinium remaining in patients’ bodies, including the brain, for months to years after receiving these drugs. [25]
Although not performed routinely, ultrasonographic evaluation of patients with LCPD is a simple and standardized procedure that can be useful for staging the disease and monitoring its course. It can also spare the patient from radiation exposure and lower treatment costs. Lateral extrusion and the onset of healing in patients with LCPD can be shown earlier with sonograms than with radiographs.
Ultrasonography is useful in establishing the diagnosis of transient synovitis of the hip and the onset of LCPD. Hip effusion, which results in capsular distention, is accurately documented on sonograms. (Capsular distention lasting longer than 6 weeks is associated with LCPD.) Ultrasonography allows aspiration of joint fluid for laboratory examination. Together, the results of clinical evaluation, radiography, and sonography determine the need for sonography-guided aspiration. Ultrasonography-guided aspiration allows the selection of only those patients with septic arthritis for surgical drainage and shortens the procedure. Negative sonographic findings allow the exclusion of septic arthritis but not osteomyelitis.
A chronologic, 4-part staging of LCPD has been proposed on the basis of the ultrasonographic findings. The stages reflect the degree of flattening and fragmentation and the reconstitution of the femoral head. Thickening of articular cartilage, associated synovitis, and lateral extrusion of the femoral head can be documented. Joint effusion is present in 74% of patients in stages I-II. Lateral extrusion increases from stage II onward until the healing stage. [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 26]
Hip ultrasonography seems to be a reliable method for monitoring the containment of the femoral head in LCPD. [27] Changes similar to those of LCPD can be found in transient synovitis and other conditions that cause hip joint effusions. Moreover, joint effusion is not always present in patients with LCDP.
Technetium-99m diphosphonate uptake depends on the stage of the disease, but it does play a role in the diagnosis. Characteristic features include a photopenic void in proximal femoral epiphyses (seen in the first 2 images below), as compared with the contralateral side, which usually can be seen by using a pinhole camera with the hip in maximal medial rotation, obviating the need of single-photon emission CT (SPECT).
Scintigraphy may be helpful in early diagnosis. Initially, uptake is decreased in the femoral head because of an interruption in the blood supply. Later, uptake is increased in the femoral head as a result of revascularization, bone repair, and degenerative osteoarthritis. In addition, acetabular activity can be increased with associated joint disease.
The sensitivity of radionuclide scanning in the diagnosis of LCPD is 98%, and the specificity is 95%. Similar activity patterns may occur with osteoarthritis or infective or inflammatory arthritis. The presence of a large joint effusion can simulate diminished perfusion caused by osteonecrosis.
Angiography is performed only in rare cases. Early in the disease process, opacification of the joint with contrast material can reveal subtle flattening of the chondral surface of the femoral head and widening of the joint space.
Angiographic findings may demonstrate an interruption in the superior capsular arteries and a generalized decrease of blood flow in the affected hip. Later in the disease process, the size and position of sequestered fragments can be identified by the distribution of revascularized osseous segments despite the demonstration of a smooth cartilaginous surface. However, vascular changes in LCPD are nonspecific on angiograms.
Metcalfe D, Van Dijck S, Parsons N, Christensen K, Perry DC. A Twin Study of Perthes Disease. Pediatrics. 2016 Mar. 137 (3):e20153542. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Johansson T, Lindblad M, Bladh M, Josefsson A, Sydsjö G. Incidence of Perthes’ disease in children born between 1973 and 1993. Acta Orthop. 2017 Feb. 88 (1):96-100. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Poul J. Diagnosis of Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease. Ortop Traumatol Rehabil. 2004 Oct 30. 6(5):604-6. [Medline].
Meadows C, Monsell F, Ramanan AV. Normal x rays in Perthes disease. Arch Dis Child. 2008 Mar. 93(3):211. [Medline].
Nelson D, Zenios M, Ward K, Ramachandran M, Little DG. The deformity index as a predictor of final radiological outcome in Perthes’ disease. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2007 Oct. 89(10):1369-74. [Medline].
Wingstrand H. Significance of synovitis in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop B. 1999 Jul. 8(3):156-60. [Medline].
Zawin JK, Hoffer FA, Rand FF, Teele RL. Joint effusion in children with an irritable hip: US diagnosis and aspiration. Radiology. 1993 May. 187(2):459-63. [Medline].
Eckerwall G, Hochbergs P, Wingstrand H, Egund N. Sonography and intracapsular pressure in Perthes” disease. 39 children examined 2-36 months after onset. Acta Orthop Scand. 1994 Dec. 65(6):575-80. [Medline].
Eggl H, Drekonja T, Kaiser B, Dorn U. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis of transient synovitis of the hip and Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop B. 1999 Jul. 8(3):177-80. [Medline].
Naumann T, Kollmannsberger A, Fischer M, et al. Ultrasonographic evaluation of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease based on sonoanatomic criteria and the application of new measuring techniques. Eur J Radiol. 1992 Sep. 15(2):101-6. [Medline].
Wirth T, LeQuesne GW, Paterson DC. Ultrasonography in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. Pediatr Radiol. 1992. 22(7):498-504. [Medline].
Jaramillo D, Galen TA, Winalski CS. Legg-Calve-Perthes disease: MR imaging evaluation during manual positioning of the hip–comparison with conventional arthrography. Radiology. 1999 Aug. 212(2):519-25. [Medline].
Sebag G, Ducou Le Pointe H, Klein I. Dynamic gadolinium-enhanced subtraction MR imaging–a simple technique for the early diagnosis of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease: preliminary results. Pediatr Radiol. 1997 Mar. 27(3):216-20. [Medline].
Hosokawa M, Kim WC, Kubo T, et al. Preliminary report on usefulness of magnetic resonance imaging for outcome prediction in early-stage Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop B. 1999 Jul. 8(3):161-4. [Medline].
Song HR, Dhar S, Na JB, et al. Classification of metaphyseal change with magnetic resonance imaging in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000 Sep-Oct. 20(5):557-61. [Medline].
de Sanctis N, Rega AN, Rondinella F. Prognostic evaluation of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease by MRI. Part I: the role of physeal involvement. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000 Jul-Aug. 20(4):455-62. [Medline].
de Sanctis N, Rondinella F. Prognostic evaluation of Legg-Calve-Perthes disease by MRI. Part II: pathomorphogenesis and new classification. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000 Jul-Aug. 20(4):463-70. [Medline].
Van Campenhout A, Moens P, Fabry G. Serial bone scintigraphy in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease: correlation with the Catterall and Herring classification. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2006 Jan. 15(1):6-10. [Medline].
Huhnstock S, Svenningsen S, Merckoll E, Catterall A, Terjesen T, Wiig O. Radiographic classifications in Perthes disease. Acta Orthop. 2017 Oct. 88 (5):522-529. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Kotoura Y, Kim WC, Hosokawa M, Yoshida T, Oka Y, Yamada N, et al. Assessment of lateral subluxation in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease: a time-sequential study of magnetic resonance imaging and plain radiography. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2015 Nov. 24 (6):493-506. [Medline].
Kim HK, Wiesman KD, Kulkarni V, Burgess J, Chen E, Brabham C, et al. Perfusion MRI in Early Stage of Legg-Calvé-Perthes Disease to Predict Lateral Pillar Involvement: A Preliminary Study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014 Jul 16. 96 (14):1152-1160. [Medline].
Du J, Lu A, Dempsey M, Herring JA, Kim HK. MR perfusion index as a quantitative method of evaluating epiphyseal perfusion in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease and correlation with short-term radiographic outcome: a preliminary study. J Pediatr Orthop. 2013 Oct-Nov. 33 (7):707-13. [Medline].
Maranho DA, Nogueira-Barbosa MH, Zamarioli A, Volpon JB. MRI abnormalities of the acetabular labrum and articular cartilage are common in healed Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease with residual deformities of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013 Feb 6. 95 (3):256-65. [Medline].
Boutault JR, Baunin C, Bérard E, Vial J, Labarre D, Domenech C. Diffusion MRI of the neck of the femur in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease: a preliminary study. Diagn Interv Imaging. 2013 Jan. 94(1):78-83. [Medline].
[Guideline] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Gadolinium-based Contrast Agents (GBCAs): Drug Safety Communication – Retained in Body; New Class Warnings. FDA.gov. Available at https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm589580.htm. December 12, 2017; Accessed: April 26, 2018.
Doria AS, Cunha FG, Modena M, Maciel R, Molnar LJ, Luzo C, et al. Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease: multipositional power Doppler sonography of the proximal femoral vascularity. Pediatr Radiol. 2008 Apr. 38(4):392-402. [Medline].
Stücker MH, Buthmann J, Meiss AL. Evaluation of hip containment in legg-calvé-perthes disease: a comparison of ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Ultraschall Med. 2005 Oct. 26(5):406-10. [Medline].
Ali Nawaz Khan, MBBS, FRCS, FRCP, FRCR Consultant Radiologist and Honorary Professor, North Manchester General Hospital Pennine Acute NHS Trust, UK
Ali Nawaz Khan, MBBS, FRCS, FRCP, FRCR is a member of the following medical societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, British Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of the United States, British Society of Interventional Radiology, Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Radiologists, Royal College of Surgeons of England
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Dare Mutiyu Seriki, MBBS, FRCR, MRCP Staff Physician, Department of Radiology, Hope Hospital, UK
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Charles Edward Hutchinson, MD, MBBS, FRCR Senior Lecturer, Department of Diagnostic Radiology, University of Manchester, UK
Charles Edward Hutchinson, MD, MBBS, FRCR is a member of the following medical societies: British Institute of Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Sumaira Macdonald, MBChB, PhD, FRCP, FRCR, EBIR Chief Medical Officer, Silk Road Medical
Sumaira Macdonald, MBChB, PhD, FRCP, FRCR, EBIR is a member of the following medical societies: British Medical Association, Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe, British Society of Interventional Radiology, International Society for Vascular Surgery, Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Radiologists, British Society of Endovascular Therapy, Scottish Radiological Society, Vascular Society of Great Britain and Ireland
Disclosure: Received salary from Silk Road Medical for employment.
Bernard D Coombs, MB, ChB, PhD Consulting Staff, Department of Specialist Rehabilitation Services, Hutt Valley District Health Board, New Zealand
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Marta Hernanz-Schulman, MD, FAAP, FACR Professor, Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Professor of Pediatrics, Department of Radiology, Vice-Chair in Pediatrics, Medical Director, Diagnostic Imaging, Vanderbilt Children’s Hospital
Marta Hernanz-Schulman, MD, FAAP, FACR is a member of the following medical societies: American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine, American Roentgen Ray Society
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Felix S Chew, MD, MBA, MEd Professor, Department of Radiology, Vice Chairman for Academic Innovation, Section Head of Musculoskeletal Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine
Felix S Chew, MD, MBA, MEd is a member of the following medical societies: American Roentgen Ray Society, Association of University Radiologists, Radiological Society of North America
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Fredric A Hoffer, MD, FSIR Affiliate Professor of Radiology, University of Washington School of Medicine; Member, Quality Assurance Review Center
Fredric A Hoffer, MD, FSIR is a member of the following medical societies: Children’s Oncology Group, Radiological Society of North America, Society for Pediatric Radiology, Society of Interventional Radiology
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease Imaging
Research & References of Legg-Calve-Perthes Disease Imaging |A&C Accounting And Tax Services
Source
0 Comments