Scrofula Overview of Scrofula
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Tuberculosis (TB) is the oldest documented infectious disease. In the United States, pulmonary tuberculosis accounts for most tuberculosis cases. Scrofula is the Latin word for brood sow, and it is the term applied to tuberculosis of the neck. Cervical tuberculosis is usually a result of an infection in the lymph nodes, known as lymphadenitis. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis, such as scrofula, is observed most often in individuals who are immunocompromised, accounting for up to 50% of these cervical infections.
Scrofula has been known to afflict people since antiquity, and during the Middle Ages, the king’s touch was thought to be curative. In modern times, surgery has played a pivotal role in the diagnosis and treatment of scrofula. Over the past several decades, however, surgical intervention has played a decreasing role because it has been fraught with persistent disease and complications. As in pulmonary tuberculosis, antituberculous chemotherapy has become the standard of care for scrofula, and newer diagnostic techniques (eg, fine-needle aspiration) have replaced more invasive methods of tissue harvesting.
Today, approximately 95% of mycobacterial cervical infections in adults are caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the remainder are caused by atypical mycobacterium, or nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM). In children, this trend is reversed, with 92% of cases due to atypical mycobacterium.
NTM was first recognized as a cause of cervical adenitis in 1956. More than 50 species have now been identified, of which one half are recognized as pathogenic. Statistics indicate an increase in the prevalence and isolation of cervical lymphadenitis caused by NTM, far outnumbering tuberculosis as the cause of chronic cervical adenitis in children. The distinction has both diagnostic as well as therapeutic implications. Historically, scrofula was a term used to describe tuberculosis adenitis; however, NTM adenitis is included in the following text for completeness.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an obligate aerobe, non–spore-forming, slender rod. Humans are its only reservoir. Transmission is from person to person via respiratory route by inhalation of small aerosols. After a short period of replication in the lungs, silent dissemination occurs through the lymphohematogenous system to extrapulmonary sites, including the cervical lymph nodes.
A study by Bruzgielewicz et al of patients with head and neck tuberculosis found that among the 26 patients with lymph node tuberculosis, 15 patients had infected lymph nodes of the second and third cervical regions and 11 had infected lymph nodes of the first cervical region. [1]
Nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) differs from M tuberculosis in 2 respects: person-to-person transmission generally does not occur, and NTM species are ubiquitous in nature and not necessarily pathogenic or equated with disease. The oral cavity may serve as a common portal of entry because the disease primarily occurs in children who have a propensity to put contaminated objects in their mouth.
Lymphadenitis is the primary manifestation of tuberculosis (TB) in 5% of the immunocompetent population, with the cervical lymph nodes providing the site of infection in two thirds of cases. In people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), cervical lymphadenitis may represent one third of the total presentations.
Starting in the mid-1980s, the first increase in incidence since 1882 was seen in the United States, the result of increased immigration from endemic countries, the rising population of persons infected with HIV, worsening urban social conditions, and the abandonment of rigid TB control programs.
Currently, 2-10% of mycobacterial infections in the United States are due to other nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM).
In impoverished countries where tuberculosis is endemic, TB continues to be a major health concern.
The mortality for TB approaches 20% with multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. Statistics are not available for isolated cervical lymphadenitis.
Recent statistics for NTM indicate an increase in prevalence and isolation of cervical lymphadenopathy caused by NTM. Because NTM is not generally reportable, the true incidence is difficult to determine.
Incidence of TB is increased in indigent, Asian, Hispanic immigrant, Native American, and Eskimo populations. People of all races are affected with NTM, with a white predominance.
For TB, the female-to-male ratio of is 2:1, and it affects people of all ages . For NTM, the female-to-male ratio is 1.3:1, but NTM affects children aged 1-5 years.
Patients report a painless, enlarging, or persistent mass. Systemic symptoms include fever/chills, weight loss, or malaise in 43% of patients.
Physical manifestations of M tuberculosis infection include the following:
Any cervical node, although anterior cervical chain is more common
Firm rubbery node becoming more firm and matted as disease progresses
Infrequently, fluctuant with draining fistula
Multiple masses in two thirds of patients
Bilateral nodes in one third of patients
Patient history for nontuberculous mycobacterium includes the following:
Chronic cervicofacial mass
Clinical progression of the disease
No constitutional symptoms
Poor response to conventional antibiotics
No history of tuberculosis exposure
A nontender slightly fluctuant mass is present with the overlying skin obtaining a violaceous hue. This is referred to as a cold abscess because of its lack of calor, or warmth. As the lesion progresses, the skin can become adherent to the underlying mass. This stage may progress to rupture and sinus formation.
Cellular immunity, in particular the T-cell population, is instrumental in controlling infection. Activated T cells generate cytokines that enable tissue macrophages and monocytes to destroy the mycobacteria and form a tubercle or granuloma. Therefore, in the population with HIV, the incidence of tuberculous infection is 500 times greater than in the general population. Nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) generally occurs in immunocompetent hosts.
The differential diagnosis of scrofula includes the following:
Cervicofacial lymphangiomas
Congenital malformations of the neck
Fine-needle aspiration of neck masses
Lymphomas of the head and neck
Malignant nasopharyngeal tumors
Neck cancer of unknown primary site
Neck cervical metastases
Neck cysts
Ranulas and plunging ranulas
Salivary gland neoplasms
Thyroid cancer
Other problems to be considered include congenital-developmental problems (eg, sebaceous cyst, branchial cleft cyst, thyroglossal duct cyst, lymphangioma/hemangioma, dermoid, laryngocele, pharyngeal diverticulum, thymic cyst); infectious complications (eg, bacterial, viral, cat-scratch, actinomycosis, fungal, atypical mycobacterium); and neoplastic complications (eg, metastatic, such as unknown primary, epidermoid carcinoma, melanoma, adenocarcinoma; primary, such as thyroid, lymphoma, salivary, lipoma, paraganglioma, rhabdomyosarcoma)
No specific laboratory tests are recommended for scrofula; however, the workup for a neck mass may include cat-scratch titers, CBC count, and HIV testing.
Although both modalities can accurately depict sites, pattern, and extent of disease, they have limitations and findings are nonspecific. [2] Tuberculosis-infected nodes are frequently mistaken for metastatic carcinoma.
For tuberculosis, despite the fact that cervical adenitis is usually secondary to a bronchopulmonary infection, review of the literature shows the rate of positive findings to be disappointingly low, averaging from 10 to 24% in patients with scrofula. For nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM), findings are normal.
A study by Moon et al indicated that ultrasonography can be used to diagnose tuberculous lymph nodes of the neck in regions of the world where tuberculosis is endemic. The study involved 476 patients, including 69 with confirmed tuberculous lymph nodes and the rest with neck lymph nodes that were nontuberculous benign or malignant. With regard to the tuberculous nodes, the investigators reported that ultrasonography had a sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy of 90.9%, 96.4%, 81.1%, 98.4%, and 95.6%, respectively. [3]
For tuberculosis, skin testing with partial purified protein derivative (PPD) has been fairly reliable. Generally, more than 85% of patients have a positive test of greater than 10 mm of induration. PPD should be the first line of investigation in the workup of a patient with a neck mass. Usefulness is diminished in individuals who have immunosuppression secondary to anergy.
For nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM), response is variable. Known cross-reactivity to standard PPD exists, and induration typically is less than 10 mm. Skin-test antigens for various NTM are available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta. However, they are not commonly used secondary to lack of standardization, difficulty in interpretation, and ubiquity of organisms.
Fine-needle aspiration is a useful initial procedure with a sensitivity of 77% and specificity of 93%. The positive predictive value approaches 100%. The most reliable criteria for diagnosing infection are the presence of stainable acid-fast bacilli and cultured organisms on aspirate. Granuloma formation is highly suggestive but not definitive. Cultures take 4-6 weeks for growth; however, the newer polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques are promising. [4]
Regarding excisional or incisional biopsies, for tuberculosis, biopsies are potentially hazardous because they may spread the disease and give rise to sinus formation. For NTM, excisional biopsy has both diagnostic as well as therapeutic efficacy.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is referred to as an acid-fast bacillus secondary to its resistance to destaining by acid-alcohol treatment. The Ziehl-Neelsen technique demonstrates an obligate aerobe, a nonmotile, slender, slightly beaded, and bent rod. The presence of caseating granulomas may be observed.
Definitive diagnosis of nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) is based on objective identification of the organism by culture. NTM is characterized by specific growth characteristics and the ability to form pigments on culture. [5]
Features claimed to be more representative of NTM lymphadenitis are the following:
Ill-defined or nonpalisading granulomas
An irregular or serpiginous character of the granuloma
A nonspecific granulomatous response with ill-defined aggregates of epithelial lymphocytes
Minimal or no caseous necrosis
Few giant cells
Variable-sized granulomas in different stages of evolution
Basophilic nuclear debris in the center of necrotic granulomas.
However, the subjectivity of histopathologic interpretation of the above findings does not allow for conclusive diagnosis. Positive cultures are reported in most studies to be extremely difficult to obtain and are not necessary for diagnosis if other indicators are present, including age and presentation consistent with NTM, normal findings on chest radiograph, and weakly positive or negative PPD.
In general, Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is not considered a localized disease; therefore, systemic chemotherapy should be instituted. Medical treatment alone is the standard treatment for scrofula. Antibiotic regimens effective for pulmonary infection can be applied to tuberculous lymphadenitis. Several options exist, including daily, twice-weekly, and thrice-weekly administration. The most common regimen consists of a 4-drug empiric treatment of isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol. After sensitivities return, continue 2 drugs for a total of 6 months.
Antituberculous therapy alone has substantial drawbacks in the treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) secondary to the lack of in vitro susceptibility. Reports of the clinical efficacy of clarithromycin in patients with AIDS and Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare (MAI) complex have prompted its use in NTM lymphadenitis. The use is primarily based on anecdotal evidence, and clinical efficacy in the literature is sparse. The low incidence of NTM lymphadenitis has precluded controlled trials.
Starke recommends chemotherapy when the family refuses surgery, a recurrence after surgery occurs, or the surgeon can excise only a particular amount of abnormal tissue. [6] The optimal treatment regimen is unknown. [7]
Luong and McClay showed that over 50% of nontuberculous mycobacteria can respond to medical therapy, often times with clarithromycin (Biaxin) alone. [8] If a 2-month trial of treatment shows no benefit, then surgical intervention should be considered.
Surgery alone has had disappointing results and is plagued by a high rate of recurrence and fistulizations. Surgery is reserved for establishing the diagnosis, advanced local disease, persistent disease, or draining fistula.
Failure to provide adequate chemotherapy at the time of surgery may lead to postoperative fistulas and hematogenous spread.
Traditionally, surgical intervention ranging from simple aspiration to complete excision is the treatment of choice. Uniformly, simple incision and drainage is not recommended because of the high rate of fistulization and recurrence. Complete surgical excision is preferred; however, this procedure is not without risks, including injury to the facial nerve and scar formation with unacceptable cosmesis. If complete excision is attempted, removing all regional lymph nodes is not necessary because satellite nodes do not appear to be associated with recurrent disease.
In order to circumvent complete excision and risking injury to facial nerve or poor cosmesis, 2 alternatives are available. Alessi et al reported a series of 9 patients who underwent aspiration alone, all of whom had complete resolution. [5] Kennedy et al also described a series of 9 children who underwent curettage; [9] no complications occurred, all healed without scarring, and no recurrence was documented with a follow-up of 6-20 months.
In conclusion, complete excision of the offending nodes is the treatment of choice. However, when large areas of skin must be resected or the facial nerve is at risk, curettage or repeated needle aspiration serve as 2 efficacious alternatives.
Consultations include the following:
Primary care or infectious disease physician
Health department contact for tuberculosis (TB)
Baseline tests prior to medical treatment include hepatic function, bilirubin, BUN/creatinine, and platelet count.
Clinically monitor patients once a month, and initiate laboratory monitoring if symptoms suggest toxicity. Some recommend liver function tests at least in the first and third months. Obtain uric acid levels for pyrazinamide toxicity, and assess visual acuity for ethambutol toxicity.
Complications associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis include disseminated disease and chronic draining fistula. Complications associated with nontuberculous mycobacterium include scar formation.
A retrospective study by Chahed et al indicated that independent risk factors for a paradoxical reaction in cervical lymph node tuberculosis (TB) are lymph nodes swollen to at least 3 cm in size and associated extra–lymph node TB. [10]
Clinical remission rates for Mycobacterium tuberculosis approach 100% with medical treatment. For nontuberculous mycobacterium, clinical remission rates are greater than 95% with surgical treatment.
For patient education information, see the Bacterial and Viral Infections Center, as well as Tuberculosis.
Bruzgielewicz A, Rzepakowska A, Osuch-Wojcikewicz E, et al. Tuberculosis of the head and neck – epidemiological and clinical presentation. Arch Med Sci. 2014 Dec 22. 10(6):1160-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Balikci HH, Gurdal MM, Ozkul MH, Karakas M, Uvacin O, Kara N, et al. Neck masses: diagnostic analysis of 630 cases in Turkish population. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2013 Mar 24. [Medline].
Moon IS, Kim DW, Baek HJ. Ultrasound-based diagnosis for the cervical lymph nodes in a tuberculosis-endemic area. Laryngoscope. 2014 Nov 12. [Medline].
Kim DW. Ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration for retrojugular lymph nodes in the neck. World J Surg Oncol. 2013 May 30. 11:121. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Alessi DP, Dudley JP. Atypical mycobacteria-induced cervical adenitis. Treatment by needle aspiration. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1988 Jun. 114(6):664-6. [Medline].
Starke JR. Management of nontuberculous mycobacterial cervical adenitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000 Jul. 19(7):674-5. [Medline].
Berger C, Pfyffer GE, Nadal D. Treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterial lymphadenitis with clarithromycin plus rifabutin. J Pediatr. 1996 Mar. 128(3):383-6. [Medline].
Luong A, McClay JE, Jafri HS, et al. Antibiotic therapy for nontuberculous mycobacterial cervicofacial lymphadenitis. Laryngoscope. 2005 Oct. 115(10):1746-51. [Medline].
Kennedy TL. Curettage of nontuberculous mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1992 Jul. 118(7):759-62. [Medline].
Chahed H, Hachicha H, Berriche A, et al. Paradoxical reaction associated with cervical lymph node tuberculosis: predictive factors and therapeutic management. Int J Infect Dis. 2017 Jan. 54:4-7. [Medline].
Chen J, Yang ZG, Shao H, Xiao JH, Deng W, Wen LY, et al. Differentiation of tuberculosis from lymphomas in neck lymph nodes with multidetector-row computed tomography. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2012 Dec. 16(12):1686-91. [Medline].
Michael R Lewis, MD ENT Associates of East Texas
Michael R Lewis, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Otolaryngic Allergy, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Medical Association, Texas Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
John E McClay, MD Associate Professor of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Children’s Hospital of Dallas, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
John E McClay, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Otolaryngic Allergy, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American College of Surgeons, American Medical Association
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference
Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.
Peter S Roland, MD Professor, Department of Neurological Surgery, Professor and Chairman, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Director, Clinical Center for Auditory, Vestibular, and Facial Nerve Disorders, Chief of Pediatric Otology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center; Chief of Pediatric Otology, Children’s Medical Center of Dallas; President of Medical Staff, Parkland Memorial Hospital; Adjunct Professor of Communicative Disorders, School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Chief of Medical Service, Callier Center for Communicative Disorders, University of Texas School of Human Development
Peter S Roland, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Academy of Otolaryngic Allergy, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Auditory Society, American Neurotology Society, American Otological Society, North American Skull Base Society, Society of University Otolaryngologists-Head and Neck Surgeons, The Triological Society
Disclosure: Received honoraria from Alcon Labs for consulting; Received honoraria from Advanced Bionics for board membership; Received honoraria from Cochlear Corp for board membership; Received travel grants from Med El Corp for consulting.
Arlen D Meyers, MD, MBA Professor of Otolaryngology, Dentistry, and Engineering, University of Colorado School of Medicine
Arlen D Meyers, MD, MBA is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Head and Neck Society
Disclosure: Serve(d) as a director, officer, partner, employee, advisor, consultant or trustee for: Cerescan;RxRevu;Cliexa;Preacute Population Health Management;The Physicians Edge<br/>Received income in an amount equal to or greater than $250 from: The Physicians Edge, Cliexa<br/> Received stock from RxRevu; Received ownership interest from Cerescan for consulting; for: Rxblockchain;Bridge Health.
Lanny Garth Close, MD Chair, Professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons
Lanny Garth Close, MD is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American Head and Neck Society, American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American College of Physicians, American Laryngological Association, New York Academy of Medicine
Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.
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